Superconducting accelerator magnet technology in the 21st century: A new paradigm on the horizon?

Superconducting magnets for accelerators were first suggested in the mid-60’s and have since become one of the major components of modern particle colliders. Technological progress has been slow but steady for the last half-century, based primarily on Nb–Ti superconductor. That technology has reached its peak with the Large Hadron Collider (LHC). Despite the superior electromagnetic properties of Nb3Sn and adoption by early magnet pioneers, it is just now coming into use in accelerators though it has not yet reliably achieved fields close to the theoretical limit. The discovery of the High Temperature Superconductors (HTS) in the late ’80’s created tremendous excitement, but these materials, with tantalizing performance at high fields and temperatures, have not yet been successfully developed into accelerator magnet configurations. Thanks to relatively recent developments in both Bi-2212 and REBCO, and a more focused international effort on magnet development, the situation has changed dramatically. Early optimism has been replaced with a reality that could create a new paradigm in superconducting magnet technology. Using selected examples of magnet technology from the previous century to define the context, this paper will describe the possible innovations using HTS materials as the basis for a new paradigm

Acoustic thermometry for detecting quenches in superconducting coils and conductor stacks

Quench detection capability is essential for reliable operation and protection of superconducting magnets, coils, cables, and machinery. We propose a quench detection technique based on sensing local temperature variations in the bulk of a superconducting winding by monitoring its transient acoustic response. Our approach is primarily aimed at coils and devices built with high-temperature superconductor materials where quench detection using standard voltage-based techniques may be inefficient due to the slow velocity of quench propagation. The acoustic sensing technique is non-invasive, fast, and capable of detecting temperature variations of less than 1 K in the interior of the superconductor cable stack in a 77 K cryogenic environment. We show results of finite element modeling and experiments conducted on a model superconductor stack demonstrating viability of the technique for practical quench detection, discuss sensitivity limits of the technique, and its various applications

The Influence of Cu on Metastable NiSn4 in Sn-3.5Ag-xCu/ENIG Joints

We have investigated the effect of small amounts of Cu on suppression of metastable bSn-NiSn4 eutectic growth in solder joints between Sn-3.5Ag-xCu solders and Ni-based substrates. For Sn-3.5Ag/electroless nickel immersion gold (ENIG) and Sn-3.5Ag/Ni solder joints we showed that the eutectic mixture contains bSn, Ag3Sn, and metastable NiSn4. It was found that addition of only 0.005 wt.% Cu to Sn-3.5Ag-xCu/ENIG or Sn-3.5Ag-xCu/Ni joints promoted formation of a stable bSn-Ni3Sn4 eutectic and that both Ni3Sn4 and NiSn4 occur in the eutectic at this Cu level. We also showed that for complete prevention of formation of metastable NiSn4 during eutectic solidification of the solder joint, addition of at least 0.3 wt.% Cu was required

Metastable eutectic in Pb-free joints between Sn-3.5Ag and Ni-based substrates

Microstructure development in solder joints between Sn – 3.5Ag and Ni-based substrates has been widely reported. However, in the present study we illustrate a new phenomenon: that during soldering of Sn – 3.5Ag to Ni or ENIG (electroless nickel, immersion gold), the bulk solder solidi fi es to contain a metastable eutectic consisting of β Sn þ Ag 3 Sn þ NiSn 4 instead of the β Sn þ Ag 3 Sn þ Ni 3 Sn 4 , expected of equilibrium solidi fi cation. It is shown that metastable NiSn 4 coarsens and then decomposes into Ni 3 Sn 4 and β Sn during aging at 150 and 200 1 C and that coarsened NiSn 4 particles deteriorate impact shear properties

Heterogeneous nucleation of βSn on NiSn4, PdSn4 and PtSn4

During Pb-free soldering, βSn often requires a high nucleation undercooling and there is an ongoing effort to develop nucleation catalysts. It is shown here that NiSn4, PdSn4 and PtSn4 are heterogeneous nucleants for βSn, reducing the nucleation undercooling to ∼4 K when these intermetallics are present either in the bulk solder or as the interfacial layer. Nucleation catalysis occurs by βSn nucleating on the (0 0 8) facet of XSn4 crystals with an orientation relationship (OR) (1 0 0)Sn||(0 0 8)XSn4 and [0 0 1]Sn||[1 0 0]XSn4 where there is a planar lattice match of ∼5%. This OR is also the origin of well-aligned lamellar βSn–XSn4 eutectic morphologies, even though the eutectics contain less than 2 vol.% of faceted NiSn4, PdSn4 or PtSn4

Controlling Bulk Cu6Sn5 Nucleation in Sn0.7Cu/Cu Joints with Al Micro-alloying

We show that dilute Al additions can control the size of primary Cu6Sn5 rods in Sn-0.7Cu/Cu ball grid array joints. In Sn-0.7Cu-0.05Al/Cu joints, the number of primary Cu6Sn5 per mm2 is 7 times higher and the mean threedimensional length of rods is 4 times smaller than in Al-free Sn-0.7Cu/Cu joints, while the area fraction of primary Cu6Sn5 is similar. It is shown that epitaxial nucleation of primary Cu6Sn5 occurs on d-Cu33Al17 or c1-Cu9Al4 particles, which are stable in the Sn-0.7Cu-0.05Al melt during holding at 250C. The observed facet relationships agree well with previously determined orientation relationships between d-Cu33Al17 and Cu6Sn5 in hypereutectic SnCu-Al alloys and result in a good lattice match with<2.5% lattice mismatch on two different interfacial planes

Dipole magnets above 20 tesla: Research needs for a path via high-temperature superconducting rebco conductors

To enable the physics research that continues to deepen our understanding of the Universe, future circular colliders will require a critical and unique instrument—magnets that can generate a dipole field of 20 T and above. However, today’s maturing magnet technology for low-temperature superconductors (Nb-Ti and Nb3 Sn) can lead to a maximum dipole field of around 16 T. High-temperature superconductors such as REBCO can, in principle, generate higher dipole fields but significant challenges exist for both conductor and magnet technology. To address these challenges, several critical research needs, including direct needs on instrumentation and measurements, are identified to push for the maximum dipole fields a REBCO accelerator magnet can generate. We discuss the research needs by reviewing the current results and outlining the perspectives for future technology development, followed by a brief update on the status of the technology development at Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory. We present a roadmap for the next decade to develop 20 T-class REBCO accelerator magnets as an enabling instrument for future energy-frontier accelerator complex

Nucleation and growth of tin in Pb-free solder joints

The solidification of Pb-free solder joints is overviewed with a focus on the formation of the βSn grain structure and grain orientations. Three solders commonly used in electronics manufacturing, Sn-3Ag-0.5Cu, Sn-3.5Ag, and Sn-0.7Cu-0.05Ni, are used as case studies to demonstrate that (I) growth competition between primary dendrites and eutectic fronts during growth in undercooled melts is important in Pb-free solders and (II) a metastable eutectic containing NiSn4 forms in Sn-3.5Ag/Ni joints. Additionally, it is shown that the substrate (metallization) has a strong influence on the nucleation and growth of tin. We identify Co, Pd, and Pt substrates as having the potential to control solidification and microstructure formation. In the case of Pd and Pt substrates, βSn is shown to nucleate on the PtSn4 or PdSn4 intermetallic compound (IMC) reaction layer at relatively low undercooling of ~4 K, even for small solder ball diameters down to <200 μm

Effect of Ni on the Formation and Growth of Primary Cu6Sn5 Intermetallics in Sn-0.7 wt.%Cu Solder Pastes on Cu Substrates During the Soldering Process

This paper investigates the effect of 0.05 wt.% Ni on the formation and growth of primary Cu6Sn5 in Sn-0.7 wt.%Cu solder paste soldered on a Cu substrate, using a real-time synchrotron imaging technique. It was found that small additions of Ni significantly alter the formation and growth of the primary Cu6Sn5 intermetallics, making them small. In contrast, without Ni, primary Cu6Sn5 intermetallics tend to continue growth throughout solidification and end up much larger and coarser. The primary effect of the Ni addition appears to be in promoting the nucleation of a larger amount of small Cu6Sn5. The results provide direct evidence of the sequence of events in the reaction of Ni-containing Sn-0.7 wt.%Cu solder paste with a Cu substrate, and in particular the formation and growth of the primary Cu6Sn5 intermetallic

Time-lapse imaging of Ag3Sn thermal coarsening in Sn-3Ag-0.5Cu solder joints

The coarsening of Ag3Sn particles occurs during the operation of joints and plays an important role in failure. Here, Ag3Sn coarsening is studied at 125°C in the eutectic regions of Sn-3Ag-0.5Cu/Cu solder joints by SEM-based time-lapse imaging. Using multi-step thresholding segmentation and image analysis, it is shown that coalescence of Ag3Sn particles is an important ripening process in addition to LSW-like Ostwald ripening. About 10% of the initial Ag3Sn particles coalesced during ageing, coalescence occurred uniformly across eutectic regions, and the scaled size distribution histograms contained large particles that can be best fit by the Takajo model of coalescence ripening. Similar macroscopic coarsening kinetics were measured between the surface and bulk Ag3Sn particles. Tracking of individual surface particles showed an interplay between the growth/shrinkage and coalescence of Ag3Sn